Msgr. John-Joseph Gaume’s 1851 book, Le Ver Rongeur des Sociétés modernes: ou La Paganisme Dans L’Education [The Gnawing Worm of Modern Societies: or Paganism in Education] sparked immediate reactions among Ultramontanes and Liberal Catholics alike. Its central point was that the study of classical (Greek and Roman) literature was harmful to the … Read more
The government’s unjust and unwise lawsuits against Catholics who criticized the National University System (called “the University”) strengthened the position of the Catholic Party in nineteenth-century France. The University’s supporters decided to go all out to end the resistance to their teaching monopoly. Their short-term goal was to obtain the Assembly’s approval … Read more
The Count of Montalembert learned much from his experience in the first battle for the freedom of education. One lesson was that defending Church interests required unified action. Such unity was difficult since the Catholic public was completely disoriented. France’s various forms of government between 1789 and 1830 had given rise to … Read more
The early nineteenth century saw a need to restore Catholic civilization and combat the French Revolution. Unfortunately, this need gave rise to a weakened, although combative, apostolate. It was weak because it was mainly dedicated to lay Catholics. It was combative because Joseph de Maistre had laid down its guiding principles. Still, … Read more
In the first chapter of his book, Des interêts catholiques au dix-neuvième siècle (Catholic Interests in the Nineteenth Century), describing the situation of the Church in 1800, the Count of Montalembert saw ruins and persecutions everywhere. In that vast shipwreck, he did not see the slightest sign that would justify any hope … Read more
European liberals did not sympathize with the Irish Catholic movement. Daniel O’Connell fought for the freedom of the Church and against the errors of the French Revolution. In this struggle, he exclusively used legal means. He always avoided the revolutionary and violent methods so common in Europe at the time. These standards … Read more
In 1829, Ireland had 6,800,000 inhabitants, of whom only 800,000 were Protestants. Nevertheless, the Catholics were obliged to pay the expenses of Anglican worship and clergy upkeep, while Catholic priests lived off the charity of the faithful. On the other hand, this poor and weather-beaten region created conditions that made it difficult … Read more
In 1823, the cardinals gathered to elect Pius VII’s successor. They were divided into two main currents. The conservative “zealots” bore this name that indicated their orientation. The “moderates” supported Ercole Cardinal Consalvi’s less stringent positions. In addition to these traditional groups, Austrian Prince and Diplomat Klemens von Metternich tried to organize … Read more
The British government’s three conditions for granting an Emancipation Bill were the main points of disagreement between English and Irish Catholics during the early nineteenth century. These conditions were an oath of allegiance, the right to veto Holy See appointments in Great Britain and Ireland, and the need for prior official authorization … Read more
In the nineteenth century, Catholicism developed extensively throughout Europe, recovering from decades of revolution. Catholic movements grew and prospered despite many difficulties ranging from the inertia and self-indulgence of many to the threats and plotting of opponents. These movements promoted a splendid revival of Catholic religious life even in Protestant countries. In … Read more